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what factors led to the industrialization of the u.s. manufacturing belt in the 1970s

Ditulis Senin, 04 April 2022 Tulis Komentar Edit

Not to be dislocated with the Salt Belt.

Region in the U.s. affected past industrial reject

Change in total number of manufacturing jobs in metropolitan areas, 1954–2002 (figures for New England are from 1958).

 >58% loss

 43–56% loss

 31–43.2% loss

 eight.7–29.1% loss [The states boilerplate: 8.65% loss]

 7.5% loss – 54.4% gain

 >62% gain

Modify in per capita personal income in metropolitan counties, 1980–2002, relative to the average for U.S. metropolitan areas.

 income above average, growth faster than boilerplate

 income higher up boilerplate, growth boilerplate or below average

 income in a higher place average but decreasing

 income beneath average, growth faster than average

 income below average, growth average or below average

 income beneath average and further decreasing

The Rust Belt is a region of the The states that experienced industrial pass up starting around 1980. The U.S. manufacturing sector as a percentage of the U.S. GDP peaked in 1953 and has been in pass up since, impacting sure regions and cities primarily in the Northeast and Midwest regions of the U.S., including Allentown, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Columbus, Toledo, Jersey City, Newark, Pittsburgh, Rochester, and other areas of New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Upstate New York. These regions experienced and, in some cases, are continuing to experience the elimination or outsourcing of manufacturing jobs beginning in the late 20th century. The term "Rust" refers to the touch on of deindustrialization, economical decline, population loss, and urban decay on these regions owing to the shrinking of the once-powerful industrial sector especially including steelmaking, machine manufacturing, and coal mining. The term gained popularity in the U.Due south. commencement in the 1980s[1] when it was normally assorted with the Sun Chugalug, which was surging.

The Rust Chugalug runs southwesterly from Central New York through Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, and then northwesterly through the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, northern Illinois, and ends in northeastern Wisconsin.[2] [3] New England was as well hard hit by industrial pass up during the aforementioned era. Since the mid-20th century, heavy industry has declined in the region, formerly known as the industrial heartland of America.

Causes include transfer of manufacturing jobs overseas, increased automation, and the decline of the US steel and coal industries.[4] Cities closer to the Due east Coast similar the New York Metropolitan Area, and the Boston area accept been able to adapt by diversifying or transforming their economies to shift focus towards services, advanced manufacturing, and loftier-tech industries. Others accept non fared as well, experiencing economical distress with poverty and the resulting turn down in population.[5]

Background [edit]

In the 20th century, local economies in these states specialized in large-scale manufacturing of finished medium to heavy industrial and consumer products, too as the transportation and processing of the raw materials required for heavy industry.[half-dozen] The area was referred to equally the Manufacturing Belt,[vii] Factory Belt, or Steel Chugalug every bit distinct from the agronomical Midwestern states forming the so-called Corn Chugalug and Nifty Plains states that are often called the "breadbasket of America".[8]

The flourishing of industrial manufacturing in the region was acquired in part by the proximity to the Corking Lakes waterways, and affluence of paved roads, water canals and railroads. Subsequently the transportation infrastructure linked the iron ore found in northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Upper Michigan with the coal mined from Appalachian Mountains, the Steel Belt was born. Soon it developed into the Factory Chugalug with its manufacturing cities: Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Toledo, Cleveland, St. Louis, and Pittsburgh, among others. This region for decades served as a magnet for immigrants from Austro-hungarian empire, Poland and Russia, likewise every bit Yugoslavia, Italy, and the Levant in some areas, who provided the industrial facilities with inexpensive labor.[ix] These migrants drawn past labor were also accompanied by African Americans during the Great Migration who were drawn by jobs and better economic opportunity.

Following several "blast" periods from the late-19th to the mid-20th century, cities in this area struggled to conform to a variety of adverse economic and social conditions. From 1979 to 1982, the U.s. Federal Reserve decided to raise the base interest charge per unit in the United States to nineteen%. Loftier-interest rates attracted wealthy foreign "hot money" into US banks and caused the The states dollar to appreciate. This fabricated US products more expensive for foreigners to buy and as well made imports much cheaper for Americans to buy. The misaligned exchange rate was not rectified until 1986, by which fourth dimension Japanese imports, in detail, had made rapid inroads into US markets.[10] From 1987 to 1999, the The states stock market went into a stratospheric rise, and this continued to pull wealthy foreign money into Us banks, which biased the exchange charge per unit against manufactured goods. Related issues include the turn down of the iron and steel manufacture, the motion of manufacturing to the southeastern states with their lower labor costs,[xi] the layoffs due to the rise of automation in industrial processes, the decreased need for labor in making steel products, new organizational methods such equally only-in-time manufacturing which allowed factories to maintain production with fewer workers, the internationalization of American business, and the liberalization of foreign merchandise policies due to globalization.[12] Cities struggling with these weather condition shared several difficulties, including population loss, lack of education, declining tax revenues, high unemployment and law-breaking, drugs, swelling welfare rolls, deficit spending, and poor municipal credit ratings.[13] [14] [15] [16] [17]

Geography [edit]

Since the term "Rust Chugalug" is used to refer to a set of economic and social weather rather than to an overall geographical region of the Usa, the Rust Chugalug has no precise boundaries. The extent to which a community may accept been described every bit a "Rust Chugalug city" depends on how not bad a role industrial manufacturing played in its local economy in the past and how it does now, besides as on perceptions of the economic viability and living standards of the present day.[ citation needed ]

News media occasionally refer to a patchwork of defunct centers of heavy industry and manufacturing across the Great Lakes and Midwestern United States every bit the snow belt,[18] the manufacturing chugalug, or the factory belt - considering of their vibrant industrial economies in the by. This includes most of the cities of the Midwest equally far w as the Mississippi River, including St. Louis, and many of those in the Cracking Lakes and Northern New York.[ citation needed ] At the eye of this expanse lies an area stretching from northern Indiana and southern Michigan in the west to Upstate New York in the eastward, where local tax revenues as of 2004[update] relied more than heavily on manufacturing than on whatsoever other sector.[19] [20]

Before Earth State of war Two, the cities in the Rust Belt region were among the largest in the U.s.. Notwithstanding, by the twentieth century's end their population had fallen the most in the state.[21]

History [edit]

The linking of the onetime Northwest Territory with the once-rapidly industrializing East Coast was effected through several large-scale infrastructural projects, well-nigh notably the Erie Canal in 1825, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1830, the Allegheny Portage Railroad in 1834, and the consolidation of the New York Central afterwards the American Ceremonious State of war. A gate was thereby opened between a variety of burgeoning industries on the interior Due north American continent and the markets not simply of the large Eastern cities but of Western Europe besides.[22]

Coal, iron ore, and other raw materials were shipped in from surrounding regions which emerged equally major ports on the Great Lakes and served as transportation hubs for the region with proximity to railroad lines. Coming in the other management were millions of European immigrants, who populated the cities along the Great Lakes shores with then-unprecedented speed. Chicago, famously, was a rural trading post in the 1840s but grew to be as big equally Paris by the fourth dimension of the 1893 Columbian Exposition.[22]

Sectors of the Us Economy as percent of GDP 1947–2009.[23]

Early signs of the difficulty in the northern states were axiomatic early in the 20th century earlier the "boom years" were fifty-fifty over. Lowell, Massachusetts, once the eye of textile production in the The states, was described in the magazine Harper's every bit a "depressed industrial desert" every bit early on as 1931,[24] as its textile concerns were being uprooted and sent s, primarily to the Carolinas. After the Great Depression, American entry into the Second World War effected a rapid return to economical growth, during which much of the industrial N reached its peak in population and industrial output.

The northern cities experienced changes that followed the end of the war, with the onset of the outward migration of residents to newer suburban communities,[25] and the declining function of manufacturing in the American economic system.

Outsourcing of manufacturing jobs in tradeable goods has been an of import issue in the region. One source has been globalization and the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements. Anti-globalization groups contend that trade with developing countries has resulted in stiff competition from countries such as China which pegs its currency to the dollar and has much lower prevailing wages, forcing domestic wages to drift downward. Some economists are concerned that long-run effects of high trade deficits and outsourcing are a cause of economical problems in the U.Due south.[27] with high external debt (corporeality owed to foreign lenders) and a serious deterioration in the United states of america net international investment position (NIIP) (−24% of GDP).[26] [28] [29]

Some economists contend that the U.S. is borrowing to fund consumption of imports while accumulating unsustainable amounts of debt.[26] [29] On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electrical, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and tin can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to bulldoze demand.[30]

Since the 1960s, the expansion of worldwide free trade agreements have been less favorable to U.S. workers. Imported appurtenances such as steel cost much less to produce in Third Earth countries with inexpensive foreign labor (see steel crunch). Beginning with the recession of 1970–71, a new design of deindustrializing economic system emerged. Competitive devaluation combined with each successive downturn saw traditional U.Due south. manufacturing workers experiencing lay-offs. In full general, in the Factory Belt employment in the manufacturing sector declined by 32.9% between 1969 and 1996.[31]

Wealth-producing primary and secondary sector jobs such as those in manufacturing and computer software were often replaced by much-lower-paying wealth-consuming jobs such as those in retail and government in the service sector when the economy recovered.[32]

A gradual expansion of the U.S. trade arrears with People's republic of china began in 1985. In the ensuing years, the U.Southward. adult a massive trade arrears with the East Asian nations of China, Japan, Taiwan, and S Korea. As a event, the traditional manufacturing workers in the region have experienced economic upheaval. This effect has devastated government budgets across the U.Due south. and increased corporate borrowing to fund retiree benefits.[28] [29] Some economists believe that Gross domestic product and employment tin can be dragged down by large long-run trade deficits.[32]

Outcomes [edit]

The Bethlehem Steel plant in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania was i of the world's largest steel manufacturers for most of the 20th century. It suspended almost of its operations in 1982 and declared bankruptcy in 2001. Its Bethlehem-based smash furnaces remain intact, but function of the property was sold in 2007 and turned into the Sands Casino Resort Bethlehem.

Francis Fukuyama considers the social and cultural consequences of deindustrialization and manufacturing decline that turned a former thriving Factory Belt into a Rust Belt as a part of a bigger transitional trend that he chosen the Great Disruption:[33] "People associate the information historic period with the advent of the Internet in the 1990s, but the shift from the industrial era started more than a generation earlier, with the deindustrialization of the Rust Belt in the United States and comparable movements away from manufacturing in other industrialized countries. … The decline is readily measurable in statistics on crime, fatherless children, cleaved trust, reduced opportunities for and outcomes from teaching, and the like".[34]

Issues associated with the Rust Belt persist even today, peculiarly around the eastern Great Lakes states, and many once-booming manufacturing metropolises dramatically slowed down.[35] From 1970 to 2006, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh lost about 45% of their population and median household incomes fell: in Cleveland and Detroit by well-nigh xxx%, in Buffalo by xx%, and Pittsburgh by 10%.[36]

Information technology seemed that during the mid-1990s in several Rust Chugalug metro areas the negative growth was suspended as indicated past major statistical indicators: unemployment, wages, population modify.[37] Withal, during the first decade of the 21st century, a negative tendency persisted: Detroit lost 25.seven% of its population; Gary, Indiana – 22%; Youngstown, Ohio – 18.9%; Flint, Michigan – eighteen.vii%; and Cleveland, Ohio – 14.5%.[38]

2000–2018 population modify in Rust Chugalug cities
City State Population change 2018 population[39] 2000 population Summit Population
Detroit, Michigan Michigan -29.iii% 672,662 951,270 1,849,568 (1950)
Gary, Indiana Indiana -26.seven% 75,282 102,746 178,320 (1960)
Flintstone, Michigan Michigan -23.2% 95,943 124,943 196,940 (1960)
Saginaw, Michigan Michigan -21.8% 48,323 61,799 98,265 (1960)
Youngstown, Ohio Ohio -20.eight% 64,958 82,026 170,002 (1930)
Cleveland, Ohio Ohio -xix.eight% 383,793 478,403 914,808 (1950)
Dayton, Ohio Ohio -15.four% 140,640 166,179 262,332 (1960)
Niagara Falls, New York New York -13.iv% 48,144 55,593 102,394 (1960)
St. Louis, Missouri Missouri -13.0% 302,838 348,189 856,796 (1950)
Decatur, Illinois Illinois -12.nine% 71,290 81,860 94,081 (1980)
County, Ohio Ohio -12.8% 70,458 80,806 116,912 (1950)
Buffalo, New York New York -12.4% 256,304 292,648 580,132 (1950)
Toledo, Ohio Ohio -12.3% 274,975 313,619 383,818 (1970)
Lakewood, Ohio Ohio -11.6% 50,100 56,646 seventy,509 (1930)
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Pennsylvania -10.0% 301,048 334,563 676,806 (1950)
Pontiac, Michigan Michigan -9.ix% 59,772 66,337 85,279 (1970)
Springfield, Ohio Ohio -nine.three% 59,282 65,358 82,723 (1960)
Akron, Ohio Ohio -viii.8% 198,006 217,074 290,351 (1960)
Hammond, Indiana Indiana -8.vii% 75,795 83,048 111,698 (1960)
Cincinnati, Ohio Ohio -8.7% 302,605 331,285 503,998 (1950)
Parma, Ohio Ohio -8.1% 78,751 85,655 100,216 (1970)
Lorain, Ohio Ohio -6.7% 64,028 68,652 78,185 (1970)
Chicago, Illinois Illinois -6.half-dozen% ii,705,994 2,896,016 three,620,962 (1950)
Due south Bend, Indiana Indiana -5.5% 101,860 107,789 132,445 (1960)

In the belatedly-2000s, American manufacturing recovered faster from the Great Recession of 2008 than the other sectors of the economy,[40] and a number of initiatives, both public and private, are encouraging the development of alternative fuel, nano and other technologies.[41] Together with the neighboring Golden Horseshoe of Southern Ontario, Canada, the so-called Rust Belt still composes i of the world'southward major manufacturing regions.[42] [43]

Transformation [edit]

Since the 1980s, presidential candidates have devoted much of their time to the economic concerns of the Rust Belt region, which contains the populous swing states of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Those states were also critical and decisive to Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 presidential election and later to his defeat by Democrat Joe Biden in 2020.[44]

Delving into the past and musing on the future of Rust Belt states, the 2010 Brookings Institution report suggests that the Great Lakes region has a sizable potential for transformation, citing already existing global trade networks, clean energy/depression carbon capacity, developed innovation infrastructure and higher educational network.[45]

Unlike strategies were proposed in social club to reverse the fortunes of the onetime Factory Belt including building casinos and convention centers, retaining the so-called "creative class" through arts and downtown renewal, encouraging the "knowledge" economy type of entrepreneurship, etc. Lately[ when? ], analysts suggested that industrial comeback might be the actual path for the future resurgence of the region.[ commendation needed ] That includes growing new industrial base with a pool of skilled labor, rebuilding the infrastructure and infrasystems, creating R&D university-business concern partnerships, and close cooperation betwixt key, state and local government and business.[46]

New types of R&D-intensive nontraditional manufacturing have emerged recently in Rust Belt, such every bit biotechnology, the polymer manufacture, infotech, and nanotech. Infotech in item creates a promising venue for the Rust Belt's revitalization.[47] Among the successful recent examples is the Detroit Aircraft Corporation, which specializes in unmanned aerial systems integration, testing and aerial cinematography services.[48]

In Pittsburgh, robotics research centers and companies such as National Robotics Applied science Center and Robotics Institute, Aethon Inc., American Robot Corporation, Automatika, Quantapoint, Bluish Chugalug Technologies and Seegrid are creating state-of-the-art robotic technology applications. Akron, a quondam "Prophylactic Capital of the World" that lost 35,000 jobs after major tire and rubber manufacturers Goodrich, Firestone and Full general Tire airtight their production lines, is at present again well known effectually the world as a center of polymer research with four hundred polymer-related manufacturing and distribution companies operating in the surface area. The turnaround was achieved in office due to a partnership betwixt The Goodyear Tire & Condom Company, which chose to stay, the University of Akron, and the urban center mayor'southward office. The Akron Global Concern Accelerator that spring-started a score of successful business organization ventures in Akron resides in the refurbished B.F. Goodrich tire factory.[49]

Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, creates another promising avenue for the manufacturing resurgence. Such companies every bit MakerGear from Beachwood, Ohio, or ExOne Company from North Huntingdon, PA, are designing and manufacturing industrial and consumer products using 3-D imaging systems.[50]

In 2013, the London-based Economist pointed towards a growing trend of reshoring, or inshoring, of manufacture when a growing number of American companies are moving their production facilities from overseas dorsum habitation.[51] Rust Belt states tin can ultimately benefit from this procedure of international insourcing.

In that location have also been attempts to reinvent properties in the Rust Belt in order to opposite its economical decline. Buildings with compartmentalization unsuitable for today's uses were acquired and renewed to facilitate new businesses. These business activities propose that the revival is taking place in the once-stagnant expanse.[52]

In popular civilization [edit]

The Rust Belt is depicted in diverse films, television shows, and songs. Information technology is the subject of the popular Billy Joel song, "Allentown," originally released on The Nylon Pall album in 1982. The song uses Allentown as a metaphor for the resilience of working-grade Americans in distressed industrial cities during the recession of the early on 1980s.

Meet also [edit]

  • Decline of Detroit
  • Deindustrialization
  • Dutch affliction
  • Early on 1980s recession in the United States
  • Economic system of the United States
  • Economy of Allentown, Pennsylvania
  • Economy of Youngstown, Ohio
  • Outsourcing
  • Shrinking city
  • Steel crisis
  • Urban decay

References [edit]

  1. ^ Crandall, Robert West. The Standing Turn down of Manufacturing in the Rust Belt. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1993.
  2. ^ Abadi, Mark; Gal, Shayanne (May 7, 2018). "The United states is split into more than than a dozen 'belts' divers by manufacture, atmospheric condition, and even health". Business Insider . Retrieved November 2, 2020.
  3. ^ Stone, Lyman (March 1, 2018). "Where Is the Rust Chugalug?". Medium . Retrieved November 2, 2020.
  4. ^ Engineering science and Steel Industry Competitiveness: Affiliate four. The Domestic Steel Industries Competitiveness Problems. Washington, D.C: Congress of the U.s., Function of Technology Cess, 1980, pp. 115-151. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
  5. ^ Leeman, Mark A. From Good Works to a Good Task: An Exploration of Poverty and Piece of work in Appalachian Ohio. PhD dissertation, Ohio University, 2007.
  6. ^ Teaford, Jon C. Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana University Printing, 1993.
  7. ^ Meyer, David R. 1989. "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century." Journal of Economic History 49(iv):921–937.
  8. ^ "Interactives . United States History Map. Fifty States". www.learner.org. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2013.
  9. ^ , McClelland, Ted. Nothin' only Blue Skies: The Heyday, Hard Times, and Hopes of America's Industrial Heartland. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2013.
  10. ^ Marie Christine Duggan (2017). "Deindustrialization in the Granite State: What Keene, New Hampshire Can Tell Us About the Roles of Monetary Policy and Financialization in the Loss of Us Manufacturing Jobs". Dollars & Sense. No. Nov/December 2017.
  11. ^ Alder, Simeon, David Lagakos, and Lee Ohanian. (2012). "The Decline of the US Rust Belt: A Macroeconomic Analysis" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on Dec 3, 2013. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  12. ^ High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America's Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Printing, 2003.
  13. ^ Jargowsky, Paul A. Poverty and Place: Ghettos, Barrios, and the American City. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1997.
  14. ^ Hagedorn, John M., and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City. Lake View Printing, Chicago, IL, (paperback: ISBN 0-941702-21-9; clothbound: ISBN 0-941702-xx-0), 1988.
  15. ^ "Rust Chugalug Woes: Steel out, drugs in," The Northwest Florida Daily News, January xvi, 2008. PDF Archived April half dozen, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ Beeson, Patricia E. "Sources of the decline of manufacturing in large metropolitan areas." Journal of Urban Economics 28, no. 1 (1990): 71–86.
  17. ^ Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent Land University Printing, 1999.
  18. ^ "Lord's day On The Snowfall Chugalug (editorial)". Chicago Tribune. August 25, 1985. Retrieved September 22, 2011. The Northern states, once the foundry of the nation, are known now as the Rust Belt or the Snow Chugalug, in invidious comparison to the supposedly booming Sun Belt.
  19. ^ "Measuring Rurality: 2004 County Typology Codes". USDA Economic Research Service. Archived from the original on September 14, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  20. ^ Garreau, Joel. The 9 Nations of North America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.
  21. ^ Hansen, Jeff; et al. (March 10, 2007). "Which Style Forward?". The Birmingham News . Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  22. ^ a b Kunstler, James Howard (1996). Abode From Nowhere: Remaking Our Everyday Globe for the 21st Century. New York: Touchstone/Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-83737-6.
  23. ^ "Who Makes Information technology?". Retrieved November 28, 2011.
  24. ^ Marion, Paul (November 2009). "Timeline of Lowell History From the 1600s to 2009". Yankee Magazine. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2015-12-27 .
  25. ^ "1990 Population and Maximum Decennial Census Population of Urban Places Ever Among the 100 Largest Urban Places, Listed Alphabetically past Country: 1790–1990". U.s. Bureau of the Census. Retrieved September 22, 2011.
  26. ^ a b c Bivens, L. Josh (December 14, 2004). Debt and the dollar Archived December 17, 2004, at the Wayback Machine Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
  27. ^ Hira, Ron, and Anil Hira with foreword by Lou Dobbs, (May 2005). Outsourcing America: What'due south Backside Our National Crunch and How Nosotros Can Reclaim American Jobs. (AMACOM) American Management Association. Citing Paul Craig Roberts, Paul Samuelson, and Lou Dobbs, pp. 36–38.
  28. ^ a b Cauchon, Dennis, and John Waggoner (Oct 3, 2004).The Looming National Benefit Crisis. USA Today.
  29. ^ a b c Phillips, Kevin (2007). Bad Coin: Reckless Finance, Failed Politics, and the Global Crunch of American Capitalism. Penguin. ISBN978-0-14-314328-four.
  30. ^ Bailey, David and Soyoung Kim (June 26, 2009).GE's Immelt says the U.S. economy needs industrial renewal.Uk Guardian.. Retrieved on June 28, 2009.
  31. ^ Kahn, Matthew E. "The silverish lining of rust belt manufacturing decline." Journal of Urban Economics 46, no. 3 (1999): 360–376.
  32. ^ a b David Friedman (Senior Fellow at the New America Foundation). No Light at the End of the Tunnel, Los Angeles Times, June xvi, 2002.
  33. ^ Fukuyama, Francis. The Dandy Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order. New York: Free Printing, 1999.
  34. ^ Francis Fukuyama. The Great Disruption, The Atlantic Monthly, May 1999, Volume 283, No. 5, pages 55–80.
  35. ^ Feyrer, James, Bruce Sacerdote, and Ariel Dora Stern. Did the Rust Belt Become Shiny? A Written report of Cities and Counties That Lost Steel and Auto Jobs in the 1980s. Brookings-Wharton Papers on Urban Affairs (2007): 41–102.
  36. ^ Daniel Hartley. "Urban Decline in Rust-Chugalug Cities." Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland Economic Commentary, Number 2013-06, May 20, 2013. PDF
  37. ^ Glenn King. Census Brief: "Rust Belt" Rebounds, CENBR/98-seven, Issued December 1998. PDF
  38. ^ Marker Peters, Jack Nicas. "Rust Belt Reaches for Immigration Tide", The Wall Street Journal, May xiii, 2013, A3.
  39. ^ "City and Town Population Totals: 2010-2018". Retrieved May 24, 2019.
  40. ^ "Rustbelt recovery: Confronting all the odds, American factories are coming back to life. Thank the residue of the world for that". The Economist. March 10, 2011. Retrieved September 21, 2011. PDF
  41. ^ "Greening the rustbelt: In the shadow of the climate bill, the industrial Midwest begins to get prepare". The Economist. Baronial 13, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  42. ^ Beyers, William. "Major Manufacturing Regions of the World". Department of Geography, the University of Washington. Retrieved September 21, 2011.
  43. ^ Rust Belt is still the heart of U.S. manufacturing [ permanent dead link ]
  44. ^ Michael McQuarrie (November 8, 2017). "The revolt of the Rust Belt: place and politics in the age of anger". The British Journal of Sociology. 68 (S1): S120–S152. doi:10.1111/1468-4446.12328 (inactive 28 February 2022). PMID 29114874. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive equally of Feb 2022 (link)
  45. ^ John C. Austin, Jennifer Bradley, and Jennifer Due south. Vey (September 27, 2010). "The Next Economy: Economical Recovery and Transformation in the Smashing Lakes Region". Brookings Establishment Paper. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ Joel Kotkin, March Schill, Ryan Streeter. (February 2012). "Clues From The Past: The Midwest As An Aspirational Region" (PDF). Sagamore Institute. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. ^ Circle, Cheetah Interactive, Paul (19 May 2013). "Silicon Rust Belt » Rethink The Rust Belt".
  48. ^ "ASX - Airspace Experience Technologies - Detroit MI - VTOL". ASX.
  49. ^ Sherry Karabin (May xvi, 2013). "Mayor says mental attitude is key to Akron'due south revitalization". The Akron Legal News.
  50. ^ Len Boselovic (June 13, 2013). "Conference in Pittsburgh shows growing attraction of 3-D printing". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved May 25, 2020.
  51. ^ "Coming home: A growing number of American companies are moving their manufacturing back to the The states". The Economist. Jan 19, 2013. Retrieved June xx, 2013.
  52. ^ Dayton, Stephen Starr in; Ohio (Jan 5, 2019). "Rust Belt states reinvent their abandoned industrial landscapes". The Irish Times . Retrieved Jan 26, 2020.

Further reading [edit]

  • Broughton, Chad (2015). Nail, Bust, Exodus: The Rust Chugalug, the Maquilas, and a Tale of Two Cities. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0199765614.
  • Cooke, Philip. The Rise of the Rustbelt. London: UCL Press, 1995. ISBN 0-203-13454-0
  • Coppola, Alessandro. Apocalypse boondocks: cronache dalla fine della civiltà urbana. Roma: Laterza, 2012. ISBN 9788842098409
  • Denison, Daniel R., and Stuart L. Hart. Revival in the rust belt. Ann Arbor, Mich: University of Michigan Printing, 1987. ISBN 0-87944-322-7
  • Engerman, Stanley L., and Robert E. Gallman. The Cambridge Economic History of the United states: The Twentieth Century. New York: Cambridge Academy Printing, 2000.
  • Hagedorn, John, and Perry Macon. People and Folks: Gangs, Crime, and the Underclass in a Rust-Belt Urban center. Chicago: Lake View Press, 1988. ISBN 0-941702-21-nine
  • High, Steven C. Industrial Sunset: The Making of North America'due south Rust Belt, 1969–1984. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8020-8528-8
  • Higgins, James Jeffrey. Images of the Rust Belt. Kent, Ohio: Kent Country University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-626-4
  • Lopez, Steven Henry. Reorganizing the Rust Belt: An Within Written report of the American Labor Move. Berkeley: Academy of California Printing, 2004. ISBN 0-520-23565-7
  • Meyer, David R. (1989). "Midwestern Industrialization and the American Manufacturing Belt in the Nineteenth Century". The Journal of Economic History. 49 (4): 921–937. doi:10.1017/S0022050700009505. ISSN 0022-0507. JSTOR 2122744.
  • Preston, Richard. American Steel. New York: Avon Books, 1992. ISBN 0-13-029604-X
  • Rotella, Carlo. Proficient with Their Hands: Boxers, Bluesmen, and Other Characters from the Rust Belt. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0-520-22562-7
  • Teaford, Jon C. Cities of the Heartland: The Ascension and Fall of the Industrial Midwest. Bloomington: Indiana Academy Printing, 1993. ISBN 0-253-35786-1
  • Warren, Kenneth. The American Steel Manufacture, 1850–1970: A Geographical Interpretation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8229-3597-Ten

External links [edit]

  • Industrial Heartland map and photographs
  • Rust Belt map
  • Changing Gears Documentary Film Collection Digital Media Repository, Ball State Academy Libraries
  • Collection: "Rust Belt" at the University of Michigan Museum of Art

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_Belt#:~:text=The%20flourishing%20of%20industrial%20manufacturing,roads%2C%20water%20canals%20and%20railroads.

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